The influence of reaction parameters on the conversion of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) using Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-SO₃H as a catalyst was systematically investigated. Solvent selection played a critical role in determining both yield and selectivity. Among tested solvents—water, DMF, DMA, N-MP, DMSO, and THF—DMSO delivered the highest HMF yield of 96.1 mol%, while water led to only 14.2 mol% due to hydrolysis of HMF into levulinic acid. Organic solvents such as DMSO effectively suppressed side reactions by stabilizing intermediates and minimizing rehydration. The addition of water to DMSO reduced HMF yield to 56.4 mol%, confirming that aqueous environments are detrimental to HMF formation.
Temperature and reaction time significantly affected the kinetics and thermodynamics of dehydration. At 120 °C, fructose conversion reached 93.6% after 60 minutes, with HMF yield peaking at 96.1 mol% after 90 minutes. Further extension beyond 90 minutes caused a slight decline in HMF yield, attributed to thermal degradation into humins and formic acid. This indicates an optimal balance between reaction rate and product stability. Temperature above 120 °C accelerated decomposition, while lower temperatures resulted in incomplete conversion.
Catalyst loading also impacted performance. Increasing Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-SO₃H from 0 to 25 mg enhanced both fructose conversion and HMF yield, reaching maximum efficiency at 25 mg. However, further increasing to 50 mg led to a notable drop in HMF yield despite near-complete fructose conversion. Excess acid sites promoted secondary reactions such as polymerization and carbonization, reducing selectivity.
Substrate concentration influenced mass transfer and reaction homogeneity. Within the range of 10–50 mg/mL, HMF yield remained stable at approximately 95 mol%. At 100 mg/mL, yield slightly decreased to 82.4 mol%, and at 200 mg/mL, both conversion and yield dropped sharply due to increased self-polymerization and cross-linking of reactants.LSM11 Antibody Autophagy Therefore, optimal substrate concentration lies below 100 mg/mL for high efficiency.PON1 Antibody custom synthesis
Comparative studies with commercial Amberlyst-15 showed lower HMF yield (84.PMID:34824007 4 mol%) under identical conditions, underscoring the superior catalytic properties of Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-SO₃H. Its magnetic separability enables rapid recovery and reuse, enhancing process sustainability. These findings provide a comprehensive optimization strategy for maximizing HMF production from fructose, laying a foundation for scalable biorefinery applications.MedChemExpress (MCE) offers a wide range of high-quality research chemicals and biochemicals (novel life-science reagents, reference compounds and natural compounds) for scientific use. We have professionally experienced and friendly staff to meet your needs. We are a competent and trustworthy partner for your research and scientific projects.Related websites: https://www.medchemexpress.com